3.5 The Slave Dynasty

The Indian slave dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. The slave dynasty was the first Muslim dynasty to rule India. It is said that Muhammad Ghori did not have a natural heir to the throne and he the habit of treating his slaves like his own children. Thus after the death of Ghori, one of the most able slaves by the name of Qutub-ud-din Aibak descended the throne. The history of the slave dynasty begins with the rule of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. He was succeeded by two more able rulers after which the slave dynasty vanished in no time due to lack of able rulers.


Qutub-ud-din Aibak:

The first ruler of the slave dynasty was Qutub-ud-din Aibak who ruled from 1206 to 1210. He established his capital at two places, first at Lahore and then shifted it to Delhi. It was during his reign that the construction of the famous Qutub Minar was started. He was an able ruler and was very kind and generous with his people. Due to his good nature, he earned the title of "Lakh Baksh", which means giver of thousands. He could rule for a very short time as he died in an accident in 1210. He was succeeded by his son Aram Shah but due to his incompetence, he was defeated in just one year by Iltumish.

Iltumish:

After Aram Shah, the next able ruler was Iltumish. He ruled from 1211 to 1236. Under his strong governance, the slave dynasty was able to find a strong footing and establish itself as an important kingdom. The army was organized efficiently under Iltumish and he also introduced a coin currency known as Tanka. It was in his reign that the construction of Qutub Minar was completed. After ruling successfully for a period of 25 years, he died, but nominated his daughter Raziya Sultan as the heir to the throne. She was an able ruler, but since she was a woman, she faced stern opposition from nobles who got her murdered.

Ghiyasuddin Balban:

The last effective emperor of the slave dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Balban. He ruled from 1266 to 1286. During his reign, the administration was strengthened and he paid much attention to governance in his empire. The army was trained effectively to use weapons and the production of arms and other war weaponry was at its peak. This is what helped them fight against attacks by the Mongols. He died in 1286 and after him the slave dynasty collapsed.

3.4 Vijayanagar Empire

Vijayanagar Empire was an empire established in the southern state of Karnataka in India. It covered the entire Deccan region of Peninsular India. The Vijayanagar Empire was founded by a ruler named Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I around 1336. The Vijayanagar dynasty receives its name from the capital city of Vijayanagar. The ruins of this city surround the modern city of Hampi and are declared a World Heritage Site.

The Vijayanagar Empire was famous for its rich heritage and beautifully constructed monuments that were spread over Southern India. The rich cultural heritage of South India was the main inspiration for temple architectural styles. The construction style of Hindu temples was inspired from the blending of different faiths and languages. Local granite was used in building temples first in the Deccan region and then in the Dravidian regions. The rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire were admirers of fine arts and encouraged people to indulge themselves in music, dance and handicrafts.

Trade and commerce was carried on vigorously and this brought about new ideas and a multitude of changes in the kingdom. Irrigation and water management systems were enhanced and developed during the Vijayanagar dynasty. Languages like Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Sanskrit developed and literature reached new heights. South Indian classical music known as Carnatic music developed tremendously and achieved its current form. Vijayanagar kingdom created an era where Hinduism was a unifying factor and went beyond all boundaries of language and beliefs.

The Vijayanagar Empire emerged as one of the most powerful kingdoms in the Peninsular India and ruled there for 200 years. The empire was so strong that four Muslim kingdoms had to come together to destroy this strong kingdom.

3.3 Bahamani Kingdom

The Bahamani kingdom in India extended from the northern Deccan region to the river Krishna. This empire was founded by Hasan Gangu who waged a battle against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and freed the Bahamani kingdom. He ruled under the title of Bahman Shah and was declared the founder of the Bahamani dynasty. This kingdom was in constant war with the Vijayanagar kingdom which was located to the south of the Bahamani kingdom. The Bahamani kingdom was founded around the year 1346. Read about the history of Bahamani kingdom.

One of the most notable rulers of the Bahamani kingdom was Firuz Shah Bahamani who waged three battles against the Vijayanagar Empire. He was a learned man who had the knowledge of numerous religious as well as natural sciences. He always wanted to develop the Deccan region as the cultural hub of India. Though he was a devout Muslim, the only vices he was extravagant on were drinking wine and listening to music. Firuz Shah was asked to give up his kingdom and throne for his brother Ahmed Shah I who was considered to be a saint because of his connection with the Sufi saint Gesu Daraz. He annexed the territories of Warangal.

With the invasion of Warangal, the balance of power in south of India changed to a large extent. The kingdom of the Bahamani extended and expanded its control rapidly. This was under the minister Mahmud Gawan. The nobles in the Bahamani kingdom were always causing problems by going against one another too often. They were broadly classified into two categories that is Deccanis (old comers) and the Afaquis (new comers). Mahmud Gawan was categorized as Afaqui and hence it was difficult for him to win the trust and confidence of the Deccanis. His policy of appeasement only made matters worse and could not stop both the parties from going against each other. Mahmud Gawan was executed at the age of seventy by Muhammad Shah of Deccan in the year 1482.

The chief economic activity in the Bahamani kingdom was agriculture and the main revenue of the state was produced in the form of agricultural products. The Bahamani kingdom flourished in architectural monuments. The best example would be the Gol Gumbaz, which is the largest dome in the world. Another famous monument is the Charminar located at Hyderabad. The Bahamani kingdom was like a cultural bridge between the north and south and the culture that developed during this time was a blend of both north and south styles and also had its own distinct styles. This style also influenced the Mughal culture.

3.2 Turkish Invasion

The Medieval Period in India starts with the Turkish invasion. With the death of Harshvardhana, an era of feudalism rose in India. There was a lot of political disheveling in the north India and everyone was too busy capturing small kingdoms than to take notice of the aggressive invasion of the Turks. The Turkish invasion in India took place around the 11th century with the Mahmud of Ghazni raiding the country all the way from Afghanistan. He gained his victory against the Hindushahi kings of Peshawar. The next targets were the Muslim rulers of Multan.

Mahmud of Ghazni plundered India 17 times in a short time span of around 25 years and looted India off its wealth and resources. The areas around Gujarat and Kannauj were rich and prosperous and were looted mercilessly by Mahmud. This wealth helped him consolidate his hold and power over northern India. He made many palaces and mosques with the looted wealth in Ghazni located in central Asia. After plundering India many times, he finally died in Ghazni in 1030 A.D.

The Rajput kings were fighting among themselves for the possession of princely states during the 11th and 12th centuries. They seized every slight opportunity to engage wars against each other. This was also the time when Prithviraj rose to power and married the daughter of the king Jaichand of Kannauj by abducting her from the middle of her wedding. At this time, Mohammed Ghori was planning to invade India and the Rajput king thought he just wanted to loot India and go back. Thus, he decided to become an ally of Mohammed Ghori and help him defeat Prithviraj.

But when he came to know that Ghori wanted to establish a kingdom here, he half heartedly joined Prithviraj along with other Rajput kings and together they were able to defeat Mohammed Ghori. But Prithviraj let him go when Ghori appealed to him. However, the very next year the Afghans launched another attack on Prithviraj and defeated him badly at the war. Ghori however, did not set Prithviraj free and the kingdoms of Prithviraj went in the hands of Qutub-ud-din. With the conquest of Mohammed Ghori, India saw for the first time a proper dynastic rule.

3.1 Rajputs

During the 7th and 8th century emerged a new clan of people who came to be known as Rajputs. They basically belonged to the warrior class of people and were located in Rajasthan and some central parts of India. However there is conflict regarding the rise of the Rajputs and there are many theories that put forward different incidents that led to the rise of the Rajput empire. The royal Rajputs of Rajasthan ruled successfully over Rajasthan and Gujarat for a period of 500 years. Read further about the history of Rajasthan Rajputs.

Being essentially in the warrior class, the Rajputs had huge armies of soldiers. There were bodyguards and watchmen who were very loyal to their masters. In fact, the Rajputs were known for their loyalty and trustworthy nature. The Rajputs were skillful warriors and followed a strict code of conduct when it came to waging a battle and driving away an enemy. There are many tales and folklores about the bravery of the Rajputs. The Rajputs were God fearing people and were devoted to Vishnu, Rama and Sun God.

A very famous Rajput ruler was Prithviraj Chauhan who waged a fierce battle against Muhammad Ghauri around the 12th century. When the Mughals invaded some Rajput rulers converted to Islam, which then laid the foundation of one of the biggest pre-colonial empire in South East Asia. The Rajputs were known for their unique architectural wonders and built many palaces and forts in and around Rajasthan and Gujarat. The forts and temples they built then still stand strong and provide a glimpse of the royal heritage of the Rajputs.

3. Medieval Era

The medieval era in India starts approximately with the rise of the Rajputs. The Rajputs were an image of feudalism and chivalry. Though they were devoted warriors, the Rajputs fought among themselves and weakened their empire. The medieval history of India is largely dominated by incidents of foreign rule and invasion due to lack of stability in Indian rulers. This was the main reason that attracted invaders from outside India to come here and establish their kingdoms. The Indian medeival history is full of such incidents where you find foreign rulers coming here and ruling India.

The weakening of the Rajputs attracted the Turks who invaded India on every given opportunity. The Turks were not just interested in India's wealth but also wanted to establish their empires and take over other kingdoms. The ruler of Delhi and one of the bravest Rajput soldiers Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated by the Turkish invader Mohammad Ghori. He captured Delhi and appointed one of the military slaves Qutub-ud-din Aibak as the in-charge. Qutub-ud-din Aibak started a series of new rulers and thus arose the Slave dynasty. This marked the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.

After the Slave dynasty came the Khilji dynasty. The Khilji dynasty was marked by gruesome battles and capturing of power from one another. The last ruler of the Khilji dynasty was not an able ruler and was murdered which ended the Khilji dynasty. Then came the Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodhis who ruled Delhi one after the other in quick succession. After this, the first battle of Panipat took place which marked the end of the Lodhi dynasty and the start of the Mughal rule in India. Medieval India also saw the rise of a culture called Sikhism and was also influenced by Sufism. Medieval architecture was a blend of Hindu and Islamic styles of architectures.

2.1.13 Rashtrakuta Dynasty

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of southern, central and northern India between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries. During this period they ruled as several closely related, but individual clans. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a seventh century copper plate grant that mentions their rule from Manpur in the Malwa region of modern Madhya Pradesh. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur which is modern Elichpur in Maharashtra and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native home and their language.

The clan that ruled from Elichpur was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas and during the rule of Dantidurga, it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an impressive empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. At the same time the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Gujarat were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively.

This period, between the eight and the tenth centuries, saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganga River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly influenced by Jainism.

During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I was the most famous king of this dynasty and wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest examples of which are seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora and the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as in the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

2.1.12 Chalukya Dynasty

The Chalukya dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty is known as the Badami Chalukyas who ruled from their capital Badami from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakesi II. After the death of Pulakesi II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from the capital Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas in late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Basavakalyan till the end of the 12th century.

The rise of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the rise of Badami Chalukyas. For the first time in history, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire also saw the birth of efficient administration, rise in overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called Vesara. Around the 9th century, it also saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature in the Jaina Puranas, Veerashaiva Vachanas and Brahminical traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.

2.1.11 The Chola Empire

The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I were notable emperors of the medieval Cholas.

The Cholas were at the height of their power during the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and his son Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the South to as far North as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. The power of the Cholas declined around the 12th century with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming to an end towards the end of the 13th century.

The Cholas left behind a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy

2.1.10 The Pala Empire

The Pala Dynasty was the ruling Dynasty in Bihar and Bengal India, from the 8th to the 12th century. Called the Palas because all their names ended in Pala, "protector". The Palas rescued Bengal from the chaos into which it had fallen after the death of Shashanka, a rival of Harsha of Kanauj. The founder of the dynasty was Gopala. Gopala reigned from 750-770 consolidated his position by extending his control over all Bengal. His successor. Dharmapala , 770-781, made the Palas a dominant power of northern India, installing his own nominee on the once-prestigious throne at Kanauj. but the Palas soon were threatened by the Pratiharas of central India and gained respite from attacks only because the of a threat to the Pratiharas from another foreign power, Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.

Under Devapala, 810-850, the Palas were able to regain their eminence against both the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. Devapala's successors were peaceful men, either by disposition or circumstance, and after 860 the Pala empire disintegrated. In addition to the depredations of their northern Indian rivals, the Pals also suffered an invasion by the Chola Rajendra I in 1023. Pala fortunes were revived briefly by Rampala 1077-1120, but by the middle of the 12th century the Pala kingdom had succumbed to the rising power of the Senas.

The Palas, adherents to Mahayana Buddhism, were generous patrons of Buddhist temples and the famous universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. It was through their missionaries that Buddhism was finally established in Tibet. The celebrated Buddhist monk Atisha 981-1054, who reformed Tibetan Buddhism, was the president of the Vikramashila monastery. the Palas also maintained cordial relations with the Hindu-Buddhist state of the Shailendras of Sumatra and Java.

Under Pala patronage a distinctive school of art arose, of which many noteworthy sculptures in stone and metal survive.

2.1.9 The Gupta Period

After the downfall of the Kushana empire in about the third century and at the beginning of the 4th century AD, many independent states emerged in North India. One of these states was of the Lichchahavis of Vaisali who dominated portions of North Bengal and South Bihar. This clan obtained possession of Pataliputra, the Capital of the Kushans. Sri Gupta was the first ruler of this dominion. After him his son Ghatokacha ruled with the title of Maharaja. In the fourth century a Lichchavi princess got married to a king in the Magadha who was called Chandragupta I. The reign of Chandragupta I is said to have come to an end in about 330AD. The importance of the rule Chandragupta I centres around the influence of Kumaradevi the Lichchavi princess, coins bearing the figures of the princess speaks of the extent of her influence. Chandragupta became the king of Pataliputra and established a kingdom along the Ganges.

Chandragupta I was succeeded by Samudragupta in about 330AD. He reigned for about fifty yeGoldcoin-Chandragupta I periodars. Inscriptions on a pillar erected by Ashoka gives an account of Samudragupta. After succeeding to the throne of the empire he subdued the powers revolting against his authority in the Gangetic plains and brought their dominions to his kingdoms. He is said to have commanded a military campaign across the Deccan, and also subdued the forest tribes of the Vindhya region. He performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to establish and proclaim his supremacy. His kingdom also included Lower Bengal, upper Assam and Nepal. Tributes and homage was paid by the rulers and clans including the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, Arjunayansas, the Madras, the Abhiras in Punjab and Rajasthan and others in Madhya Pradesh. Samudragupta led an expedition to the south through the forest tracts of Madhya Pradesh to Orissa, Vishakapatnam, Godavari, Krishna and Nellore district. He is also said to have intruded into Kanchi the capital of the Pallavas.

Samudragupta maintained diplomatic relations with the Kushana King of North west and the ruler of Ceylon. His friendly relation with Ceylon is proved by the fact that King Meghavarna of Ceylon sent an embassy to Samudragupta. With gifts, seeking permission to erect a splendid monastery near the holy tree at Bodh Gaya for the pilgrims from Ceylon. This structure constructed with the permission of Samudragupta was known as Mahabohi Sangharvama. Samudragupta's personal skill was exceptional especially in music and song. He was also well known for his poetry and had composed many work which had a reputation of a professional author. He was a devotee of Vishnu and thus can be called a Brahmanical Hindu. All these and his role as a monarch qualifies him to be called a hero of hundred battle by a court poet in the Allahabad inscriptions.

Vincent Smith has elevated Samudragupta in Indian history as the Napoleon of India. His tradition of (Milito) religious toleration reflects in the Allahabad inscription and speaks thus " put to Shama the preceptor of the lord of the gods. Brahaspati by his sharp and polished intellect and Tamburu and Narad by lovely performance." Samudragupta had several sons. His rule is presumed to have been till about 375AD.

Samudragupta was succeeded by his elder son Ramagupta who was said to have been murdered by Chandragupta II, who did so owing to his brother Ramaguptas uncouth act of surrendering his queen Dhruvadevi to the Saka ruler who subdued him.

Thus Chandragupta ascended the throne of Patilaputra in about 375AD. On assuming the throne of the Gupta empire he took to the title of Vikramaditya. Chandragupta II was a conquerer like his father Samudragupta. His diplomatic tactics in giving his daughter in marriage to Rudrasena II. TheVakattaka king of Deccan helped greatly in securing the vital territory for himself which could prove advantageous in the event of an attack upon the saka satraps of the west from the north. Chandragupta Vikramaditya's miltary conquests includes the conquest of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra which were under the Saka rule. He defeated Rudrasimha III the last of the western satrap ruler and annexed his territories. This provided exceptional wealth which added to the prosperity of the Guptas. The Guptas at his period had sea trade with the countries of the west. Broach, Sopara, Cambay were ports that facilitated trade. During this period, Ujjain appears to have been the inland centre upon which most of the trade routes converged. Chandragupta occupied the throne for nearly forty years. Pataliputra was a flourishing city. The Gupta administration at this period was mild. Under the Guptas the King assumed a divine character. Chandragupta II was also identified with Vikramaditya of Ujjain. Raja Bikram of popular legend was also a patron of the nine gems including Kalidsa and Varahamihira.

Kumaragupta I was successor of Chandragupta II known as Mahendraditya Kumargupta I, he ruled from 415 AD to 455 AD. He reigned for about 40 years. His empire extended from North Bengal to Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Narmada. To the south his kingdom extended as far as the Satara district of the Deccan. He also performed the Ashwameda sacrifice. Towards the end of his rule, the Pushyamitras who were people located near Mekala in the Nerbudda valley became powerful and wealthy. The Pushamitras brought about a temporary eclipse of the Gupta power.This attack on the Guptas were repulsed by Skandagupta who is considered as the last great Gupta ruler. After the succession of Skandagupta he had to subdue the Huns, Skandagupta assumed the title of Vikramaditya. During his campaign against the Huns Skandagupta had to meet great expenses which resulted in the reduction in the issue of gold coins. The Gupta period in Indian history is termed as the Golden Age of India. This period extends from 320 to 480 AD. It extends through the reigns of Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya, Kumaragupta and Skandagupta.The Gupta dynasty continued its existence after the death of Skandagupta. He was succeeded by his son Narasimhagupta followed by Kumaragupta II. Kumaragupta II was followed by Budhagupta. His territory extended from Bengal to central India. The last Gupta ruler was Bhanugupta. During his reign the Hunas wrested Malwas from the Guptas. After his decline in 467Ad the succeeding rulers were weak and could not check the invasion of the Huns and other tribes. After the death of Bhanugupta in 570AD the Gupta empire declined and broke off.

The Gupta period has been described as the golden age of Indian history. It extended from the period of 320AD to 480AD. During this period literature, art and science flourished. Religious toleration and freedom of worship speaks greatly of the Guptas. The great writings of Kalidasa which include Ritusamhara and Meghauta in Sanskrit literature at its highest quality.

The Gupta period is also regarded as a period of Hindu renaissance. Ashoka had succeeded in making Buddhism as the religion as the majority people in Northern India. On doing this neither Brahmanical Hinduism of Jainism died out owing to Ashokas religious toleration propagated by Ashoka. After Ashoka all the rulers that followed showed religious toleration which only added to the prosperity of the territories they ruled. The Guptas though showed a preference to their family deity Vishnu pursued the policy of perfect freedom of worship.

Music, architecture, sculpture and painting was at its best during the period of Gupta rule. The stoner temples of which one at Deogarh in Jhansi, a t Bhitergaon in the kanpur district are few specimens depicting gupta excellence in architecture and sculpture Another area of Gupta excellence was their metallurgical skill. Various copper statues images of Buddha reflects the craftsmanship of the gupta period. The pillar at Delhi made of iron in the time of Samudragupta is also another piece of excellence The Guptas also excellent in the filed of fine arts. All fields of fine arts received royal patronage. Another area of outmost importance during the Gupta reign is the exchange of intellectual ideas which is attributed to the royal patronage and contacts with foreign people of both east and west. Buddhism which was introduced in China from India fostered religious relations promoting constant communication. Chinese missionaries visited India to do reverence to the sacred spots of faith . These visits helped to the sacred spots of faith. These visit helped the Chinese pilgrims knowledge of Sanskrit. Besides China contacts with various islands of South Asia, Indonesia, Persia, Greece and Rome also proves the sound Gupta rule and their diplomatic tactics to provide the best of administration. All these adds to the statement that defines the Gupta period as the Golden age of India.

2.1.8 Kushan Empire

In the early 2nd century BC, a tribe on the Central Asian frontier of China called Hsiung-nu defeated a neighboring one known as Yueh-chih. After more conflict, the survivors of the Yueh-chih were dislocated west, passing down the Ili river valley and along the southern shore of lake Issyk Kul. This movement also pushed Saka tribes (and others) ahead of them. Sometime between 145 and 125 BC, these nomad invaders burst into Bactria and Parthia.

A generation later, they were pressing into the Kabul valley and onto the Punjab plain. At around the beginning of the Christian era, one of the five Yueh-chih chiefs, K'iu-tsiu-k'io, attacked and defeated the others, leaving his clan in control; the Kuei-shang (Kushans).

Kujula Kadphises (30-80 AD) established the Kushan dynasty in 78 AD by taking advantage of disunion in existing dynasty of Pahalava (Parthian) and Scytho-Parthians, and gradually wrested control of southern prosperous region, which is the northwest part of ancient India, traditionally known as Gandhara (now Pakistan). It was his grandson Vima Kadphises who made Kushan a paramount power of northern India. His reign saw emergence of Kushan empire when he conquored north-western India (modern Punjab). Soon he came under influence of Hinduism (most likley embraced it for good) and took opportunity to proclaim himself Mahishwara, another name for Lord Shiva, on his coins (Shiva is a prominent Hindu god). Kushan kings introduced gold and copper coins, a large number of them have survived till today. It was the Kushan emperor, Vima Kadaphises who introduced the first gold coins of india. Kushan empire covered north west of India (includes Pakistan and modern Afganistan) and northern India. Ample evidences of trade with China, cental Asia, Egypt and Rome are available which made their economy very strong and kingdom wealthy and prosperous.

Vima's able son Kanishka (100 - 126 AD) followed and took control of this dynasty in 100 AD. Kanishka is the legendary ruler of ancient India and according to most historians the greatest ruler of Kushan dynasty. He and his descendents called themselves `Devputra' which means son of god, who ruled Aryavarta, the India. He established an era, commonly known as Shaka era, starts from 78 AD. Shaka era is still in use in India. Kanishka's empire consisted Bactria (modern Afghanistan), part of central Asia (Tajikistan), north-western India (modern Pakistan) and Northern India till Pataliputra or Patana. Kushan empire.

Huvishka succeeded Kanishka I. He was founder of a city Hushka in Kashmir named after him (described by Kalhan in Rajatarangini). Kushana empire was at its zenith during Kanishka's and Huvishka's reign. After Huvishka's reign, Vasudeva I took control of this dynasty which by then had lost control over regions beyond Bactria or perhaps the Bactria itself. The Kushan dynasty had been totally assimilated in Indian culture. Vasudeva I was the last great king of the dynasty when Kushana empire was at it's height of splendor and prosperity.

Kushan empire had started its decline soon after Vasudeva's death. Vasudeva was followed by his son (?) Kanishka II who lost all the territories west of river Indus to Sassanians. Vasudeva II, Vashishka, and Shaka are the kings who followed after the Kanisha II. After Vashishka the Kushan empire had completly disintegrated into few small kingdoms. By fourth century AD this dynasty went into total obscurity with advent of mighty Gupta emperors.

2.1.7 Satavahana Empire

The Satavahanas were also called Andhras. The Aitareya  Brahmana claims  the Andhras as, the exiled and degenerate sons of Viswamitra. Ashoka inscriptions mentions the Andhras as border people. They were Dravidian  people who lived between the Godavari and the  Krishna. Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty. He was succeeded  by his brother Krishna.

Scholars are of the opinion that the original home of the Andhras  - Andhra bhrityas was the Bellary district. Others claim their recordsto be found in the Northern Deccan and central India. Satakarni was  the successor after Simuka, and is a considerable figure, known for his performance of two aswamedha sacrifices. His reign was followed by the rule of Gautamiputra satakarni. He is said to have defeated the Yavanas, Sakas and Phalanas and re-established the ancient glory of the Satavahanas. Gautamiputra satkarni was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi in about 130 AD. He extended his rule towards the Andhra country. Yajna Sri Satakarni was the last great ruler of the Satavahanas. After him the weak successors resulted in the contraction of the territory of the Satavahanas. Hostility with the Saka rulers also led to the ultimate parceling of its territories and decleration of  independence .


The Satavahana society reflected the existence of four classes. The persons who controlled and administered the districts, followed by the officials. They were followed by the Vaidhya, cultivators. The fourth class were common citizen. The head of the family was the Grihapati.

Both Buddhism and Brahmanism was practiced  during the Satavahana rule. A state of religions tolerance existed among of various sects of people following varied faiths.

Trade flourished and there existed organisation of workers doing various trades. Broach, Sopara  and Kalyan were important trade points. The Satavahana rulers patronised Prakrit which was the common language used on documents.

The Satavahana empire is said to be partitioned  into five provinces. The western territory of Nasik was possessed by the Abhiras. The Ikshavakus  dominated over the eastern part in the Krishna -Guntur region.

The Chutus possessed the southwestern parts extended their territory  to the north  and east. The south eastern parts were under the Pahalvas.

The Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri near Cuttack speaks of a remarkable rule of a contemporary of  the Sungas known as Kharavela of Kalinga. He ruled from about 176Bc to 164 BC. He is said to be the third ruler of the Cheta dynasty.

In the first year of his rule he is said to be have furnished  and  improved his capital Kalinga. In the second year he subdued  and destroyed the capital of the Mushikas disregarding the rule of Satakarni.

In his eighth year he destroyed the fortification of Gordha and entered as far as Rajagriha in the Gaya district. He also conquered king Brihaspatimittra of the Magadha. He also built the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves to provide shelter to the Jain.

It can be concluded that he was as accomplished ruler and a generous guardian of the people

2.1.6 The Maurya Empire

The Mauryan empire in Indian history was reigned by the rulers from the Mauryan dynasty. According to the ancient history of India, the Mauryan empire happened to be quite strong and powerful in all respect including the political aspects and military aspects. The Mauryan empire had a duration of one hundred and thirty seven years from 322 BCE to 185 BCE.

The Mauryan empire in Indian history originated from the Magadha Kingdom that is located on the Indo- Gangetic plains. These are now form the major part of the states of West Bengal and Bihar. The capital city was at Patyliputra which is now near to where Patna is located. Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Ashoka the Great were the remarkable rulers from the Maurya dynasty.

Chandragupta Maurya was admirably successful to establish a strongly centralized state. The administrations was quite complex in comparison to those that prevailed in the states of India in the earlier times. According to Megasthenes, one of the renowned visitors and travelers to the country of India, Patuliputra, the capital city of the Mauryan Empire in Indian history, was walled up by wooden walls with as many as 570 towers and 64 gates.

Bindusara, the successor of Chandragupta Maurya, expanded the area of the state that he inherited from Chandragupta Maurya who reigned for a fairly long period of 24 years. The main targets of Bindusara were the regions in the southern parts of India. Because of the scarcity of informations about Bindusara from the ancient Indian history, little is known about this ruler from the Maurya dynasty. Bindusara's mother was Durdhara. According to the informations in Puranas the duration of the reign of Bindusara was for a period of 25 years, almost same as his father.

Ashoka was the next emperor after the demise of Bindusara. Ashoka was also known as Ashokabardhan Maurya. But in all the times, even till the present time, he is known as Ashoka the Great. H. G. Wells is of the opinion that Ashoka is the greatest among all of the kings not only in the history of India, but also in the history of the world. Ashoka would have remained the Ashokabardhan for the whole of his life if he would not have come to the noble realization that he had when he visited the battlefield where the Kalinga war was fought. Ashoka invaded Kalinga and became victorious claiming the lives of at least 100000 soldiers and civilians. Nearly ten thousand soldiers who were fighting for Ashoka, also lost their lives. Ashoka was overwhelmingly pained at the loss of so many lives.

The impact of this negative war affair was a tremendously positive one. Ashoka changed his mind and came to the resolution that he would not ever wage any war in future. The reality showed Ashoka to be even more generous. He started spreading the message of peace and non- violence. He not only kept himself stuck to the teachings of Gautama Buddha, but also spread Buddha's messages to the neighboring countries.

2.1.5 Magadha Empire

Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, the kingdom of Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked in power under the reign of Asoka Maurya, one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. The kingdom of Magadha had emerged as a major power following the subjugation of two neighbouring kingdoms, and possessed an unparalleled military.

Haryanka dynasty

According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BC, whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna. This dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty.

Shishunaga dynasty

This period saw the development of two of India's major religions. Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BC was the founder of Buddhism, which later spread to East Asia and South-East Asia, while Mahavira founded Jainism. This dynasty lasted till 424 BC, when it was overthrown by the Nanda dynasty.

Nanda dynasty

The Nanda dynasty was established by an illegitimate son of the king Mahanandin of the previous Shishunaga dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88, ruling the bulk of this 100-year dynasty. The Nandas were followed by the Maurya dynasty. It is said that rumors of the huge size of the Nanda army was in part responsible for the retreat of Alexander from India.

Maurya dynasty

In 321 BC, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya, under direct patronage of the genius of Chanakya, founded the Maurya dynasty after overthrowing the reigning king Dhana Nanda to establish the Maurya Empire. During that time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by the Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into Persia and Central Asia, conquering the Gandhara region. Chandragupta Maurya was influenced by the jainacharya Bhadrabahu and he adopted Jainism.He is credited for the spread of Jainism in southern Indian region. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India, barring Kalinga, and the extreme south and east, which may have held tributary status. Modern day India is an image of the Mauryana, that tied all the peoples and cultures of the erstwhile separate kingdoms under one banner, and predicted a common destiny for all Indians (then mainly Hindus and Buddhists). The tradition was continued later by the Mughals and the British, who formed similar empires.

Bindusara's kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka The Great who initially sought to expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating of dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia, fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole. Ashoka the Great has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world has seen. Ashoka's grandson Samprati adopted Jainism.He was influenced by the teachings of a great jain acharya Arya Suhasti. Following the lines of Ashoka, Samprati spread Jainism in many parts of this world and Indian sub-continent.It is said that Samprati built 1,25,000 Jain Temples all over India, many of which are worshipped today as well.

Sunga dynasty

The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was brutally murdered by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne.

Kanva dynasty

The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 71 BC to 26 BC. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa was absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror. Following the collapse of the Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra kindgom replaced the Magandhan kingdom as the most powerful Indian state.

2.1.4 Mahajanpadas

During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great powers (Mahajanpadas/Mahajanapadas) existed in the 7th and early 6th centuries BC. Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali. Besides the republics, there were monarchical states, among which the important ones were Kaushambi (Vatsa), Magadha, Kosala and Avanti. These states were ruled by vigorous personalities who had embarked upon the policies of aggrandisement and absorption of neighbouring states. However, there were distinct signs of the republican states while those under the monarchs were expanding.


The political structure of the ancient Indo-Aryans appears to have started with semi-nomadic tribal units called "Jana". Early Vedic texts attest several Janas or tribes of the Aryans, living in semi-nomadic tribal state, fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep and green pastures. These early Vedic Janas later coalesced into Janapadas of the Epic Age.

The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini. The Pre-Buddhist North-west region of Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Panini, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry. These Janapadas were named after the tribes or the Janas who had settled in them. By circa 600 BCE, many of these Janapadas had further evolved into larger political entities by the process of land-grabbing which eventually led to the formation of kingdoms known in Buddhist traditions as the Mahajanapadas or the great nations (Sanskrit: Maha = great, Janapada = country).

The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen nations:

1. Kasi                                                                         9. Kuru

2. Kosala                                                                     10. Panchala

3. Anga                                                                       11. Machcha (or Matsya)

4. Magadha                                                                  12. Surasena

5. Vajji (or Vriji)                                                          13. Assaka

6. Malla                                                                        14. Avanti

7. Chedi                                                                       15. Gandhara

8. Vatsa (or Vamsa)                                                      16. Kamboja



The Jaina Bhagvati Sutra gives slightly different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas viz: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Kochcha (Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji (Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Avaha and Sambhuttara. Obviously, the author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 86; History & Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 15-16).

The main idea in the minds of those who drew up the Janapada lists was basically more tribal than geographical, since the lists include names of the people and not the countries. As the Buddhist and Jaina texts only casually refer to the Mahajanapadas with no details on history, the following few isolated facts, at best, are gleaned from them and other ancient texts about these ancient nations.

2.1.3 Vedic Period

The Aryans, or Vedic civilization were a new start in Indian culture and they adopted almost nothing of Harappan culture. They built no cities, no states, no granaries, and used no writing.

Instead they were a warlike people that organized themselves in individual tribal, kinship units, the jana. The jana was ruled over by a war-chief. These tribes spread quickly over northern India and the Deccan. In a process that we do not understand, the basic social unit of Aryan culture, the jana, slowly developed from an organization based on kinship to one based on geography.

The jana became a janapada, or nation and the jana-rajya , or tribal kingdom, became the jana-rajyapada, or national kingdom. So powerfully ingrained into Indian culture is the jana-pada, that Indians still define themselves mainly by their territorial origins. All the major territories of modern India, with their separate cultures and separate languages, can be dated back to the early jana-padas of Vedic India.

The earliest history of the Aryans in India is called the Rigvedic Period (1700-1000 BC) after the religious praise poems that are the oldest pieces of literature in India. In this early period, their population was restricted to the Punjab in the northern reaches of the Indus River and the Yamuna River near the Ganges.

They maintained the Aryan tribal structure, with a raja ruling over the tribal group in tandem with a council. Each jana seems to have had a chief priest; the religion was focused almost entirely on a series of sacrifices to the gods. The Rigvedic peoples originally had only two social classes: nobles and commoners. Eventually, they added a third: Dasas , or "darks." These were, we presume, the darker-skinned people they had conquered.

By the end of the Rigvedic period, social class had settled into four rigid castes: the chaturvarnas, or "four colors." At the top of the chaturvarnas were the priests, or Brahmans. Below the priests were the warriors or nobles (Kshatriya), the craftspeople and merchants (Vaishya), and the servants (Shudra), who made up the bulk of society. These economic classes were legitimated by an elaborate religious system and would be eventually subdivided into a huge number of economic sub-classes which we call "castes." Social class by the end of the Rigvedic period became completely inflexible; there was no such thing as social mobility.

In the early centuries of Later Vedic Period or Brahmanic Period (1000-500 BC), the Aryans migrated across the Doab, which is a large plain which separates the Yamuna River from the Ganges. It was a difficult project, for the Doab was thickly forested; the Aryans slowly burned and settled the Doab until they reached the Ganges.

While the Rig Veda represents the most primitive religion of the Aryans during the Rigvedic Period, the religion of the Later Vedic period is dominated by the Brahmanas, or priestly book, which was composed sometime between 1000 and 850 BC. Later Vedic society is dominated by the Brahmans and every aspect of Aryan life comes under the control of priestly rituals and spells. In history as the Indians understand it, the Later Vedic Period is the Epic Age; the great literary, heroic epics of Indian culture, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, though they were composed between 500 and 200 BC, were probably originally formulated and told in the Later Vedic Period. Both of these epics deal with heroes from this period and demonstrate how Aryan cultural values, as we can understand them from the Rig Veda , are being transformed by mixing with Indus cultures.

2.1.2 Indus Valley Civilization

Archaeologists were always puzzled by Vedic texts (dated c.1500 - 900 BC) that talked about "nomadic invaders conquering mighty citadels under the banner of their God, Indra". However, no trace of the 'mighty citadels' had ever been found, nor of their mysterious inhabitants, the Dasas.

Then, in 1856, six miles from the river Ravi, in the foothills of the Himalayas, railway construction workers came upon a small crumbling hill of fire-baked bricks. These they quickly appropriated for the railway line's ballast. Along with the bricks, certain steatite (soapstone) seals were found. Archaeologists, notably Sir John Cunningham, quickly confirmed their antiquity.  Thus started a voyage of amazing discovery during which archaeologists unearthed the remains of an ancient civilization, which had its epicenter in the plains of the Indus.

Some 5000 years ago, a nomadic people made their way into northwest India from Sumeria (modern day Iran) by means of the Mula Pass across the Himalayas, near modern Karachi, and there found a fabulously rich land, fertilized by the great river systems of the Indus, Ravi, Beas, Chenab and Sutlej. This same area forms modern-day Punjab. Compared to the deserts of Iran, this was God's blessed land, with ample water, fodder and fuel supply. Clay for making bricks was plentiful in the riverbeds and so was wood to burn the bricks.

Over a period of a thousand years, these immigrants spread over an area of half a million square miles

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 - 1700 BCE, flourished 2600 - 1900 BCE) flourished in the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys primarily in what is now Pakistan and western India, extending westward into Balochistan. The mature phase of this civilization is known as the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa. Excavation of Indus Valley Civilization sites has been ongoing since the 1920s.

The peaceful life of the Harappan people bred a sense of complacency. Hence, when the Aryan invaders poured in from the Northwest, they encountered little or no resistance. City after city fell, and the pathetic remains of the people were either assimilated into the conquerors' way of life, or fled further south. In fact, the fall of Mohenjo-daro, almost 3,500 years ago, typified this decay. 

In terms of achievements in town planning and civil administration, this was a great setback, as more than a thousand years were to pass before anything of this magnitude was accomplished in India again. 

The invaders were a nomadic people, unused to urban life. They revered all natural phenomena, ascribing divinity to animals, the wind, the trees, the sky and the water, among myriads of others. It was during this age that the Vedas began to be composed - this formed the basis of early Hinduism.

2.1.1 Prehistoric India

The Indian prehistoric era is one of the most fascinating and intriguing eras to read about. Though there is speculation about when it originated, historians quote the approximate period from 200000 B.C to about 3500 - 2500 B.C. It is estimated that the first humans to set their foot in the Indian sub continent between 200000 B.C and 40000 B.C. Pre historic India has been divided into four major eras.

• Stone Age
• Paleolithic Era
• Mesolithic Era 
• Neolithic Era.

The Bronze Age is also mentioned here though it comes after these four eras. Further information about Indian prehistory is given below.

Stone Age

The Stone Age was the era when early man used stones for functional and useful purposes. The Stone Age is further classified into three categories which are the Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Age. These divisions have been made on the basis of the kind of stone tools that were used during these times.
Paleolithic Age

The Paleolithic Age lasted till about 8000 B.C. In this age, man was essentially a food gatherer. He learnt to make weapons out of stones and also mastered the skill of hunting animals. The crude weapons were slowly carved properly and were made sharp and pointed. These special weapons were made by shredding the sides of a stone with a heavier stone. Man also learnt how to create fire and make use of it.
Mesolithic Age

The Mesolithic Age lasted from 8000 B.C - 4000 B.C. In this age the size of the groups grew to form small communities. The number of mouths to feed increased and needed constant nurturing for continuation. The tools improved and became more refined and sharp. There was a drastic change in the food and clothing of man. The tools were modified and now the sharp stones were attached to strong tree branches using ropes and vines. These new weapons or hand axes could be flung on animals from a safe distance. Apart from this, farming techniques were developed and man began to grow crops. Man also learnt to draw and paint and the evidence is found in the form of cave paintings found in India.
Neolithic Age

The Neolithic Age lasted from 4000 B.C - 2500 B.C and is known as the last stage of the Stone Age era. The main features of this age were the finely flaked weapons and small tools made of stone that were used for day to day work. This age also saw domestication of cows, horses and other poultry and farm animals. Their products were used for dairy and meat items. The wheel, which was a very important invention, was created during this age. Shortly after this age around 1800 B.C, tools were made of copper and bronze and were used for many practical purposes.
Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is the era when metals were used and improvised for making tools and other weapons. This age came immediately after the Neolithic Age and aided in the development of the metallurgy industry. It came into being in 3500 B.C in the Middle East. The Bronze Age in India is roughly estimated to have begun around 3300 B.C. It almost coincided with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. People living in Indus Valley produced bronze, copper and tin thus developing new techniques of metallurgy.

2.1 Ancient Era

The Indus Valley Civilization existed in between 3000-1500 BC while the earlier Kot Diji cultures, of the pre-Indus period, existed in the period of approximately 3300-2800 BC. Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-Daro were the greatest achievements of the Indus valley civilization. These cities are well known for their impressive, organized and regular layout.

Then came Aryans who composed these evocative hymns to nature and celebrated life exuberantly referred to themselves as Aryas usually anglicised as Aryan meaning 'noble'. The 6th Century B.C. was the period of Magadh Kingdom. Chandragupta Maurya ousted the oppressive ruler of Magadh to find his own dynasty that existed from 322 - 298 B.C.

The most famous Maurya King Ashoka the Great ruled from 273 - 232 B.C over a large kingdom stretching from Kashmir and Peshawar in the North and Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East. He after witnessing the carnage at the battle field of Kalinga (269 B.C.) in Orissa, dedicated himself to Dharmma ( righteousness ).

In the subsequent centuries, after the Ashoka empire disintegrated, India suffered a series of invasions, and often fell under the spell of foreign rulers - Indo Bactrians, the Sakas and others. After the next 400 years of instability the Guptas established their kingdom.

Kalidas, the famous Sanskrit poet and dramatist, author of Abhijnana Shankuntalam, Kumarsambhavam and Meghadutam is believed to have adorned the Gupta court. Also the great mathematicians like Aryabhatta and astronomers like Varahmihir lived during this period. The dazzling wall paintings of the Ajanta caves too are traced back to this era.

Cholas, Pandayas and Pallavas ruled over the southern part of India during the medieval period of India's history. Cholas ruled the territory of Deccan (today the districts of Thanjavur and Tiruchirapally) while the Pandyas reined around present day Tirunelvelli and Madurai.

Pallavas of Kanchi rose to prominence in the 4th Century A.D. and ruled unchallenged for about four hundred years. The Nayanar and Alvar saint poets belong to this period. The gemlike shore temples at Mahabalipuram date to this period. The Cholas overthrew the Pallavas were in the 9th Century and regained political primacy in south India. The 15th Century saw the decline of the Pandyas.